细胞毒理学（Cell Toxicology）
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Introduction
In order to understand how toxins cause a harmful change in organs, tissues, cells, or biochemicals, it is first necessary to have knowledge of normal physiology and anatomy. In the initial section, we present an overview of normal physiology, especially as related to the normal body components and how they function. While we indicate how some xenobiotics can damage the different body components, detailed examples of toxic cellular and biochemical reactions will be covered in later sections.
The body is immensely complex with numerous components, all which perform precise functions necessary for the body to maintain health and well being. Malfunction of any component can result in a breakdown of a portion of the body, commonly referred to as disease. Toxins can damage an organ or organ system so that it can not function properly, leading to death or sickness of the organism (for example, liver or kidney failure). However, in nearly all cases, the toxin actually exerts its harmful effect directly on specific cells or biochemicals within the affected organ. These cell and chemical changes in turn cause the tissue or organ to malfunction.
Most toxins are usually specific in their toxic damage to particular tissues or organs, referred to as the "target tissues" or "target organs". Toxic effects may in fact affect only a specific type of cell or biochemical reaction. For example, the toxic effect of carbon monoxide is due to its‘ binding to a specific molecule (hemoglobin) of a specific cell (red blood cell). Another example of a highly specific effect is that of organophosphate toxins, which inhibit an enzyme (acetylcholine esterase), responsible for modulating neurotransmission at nerve endings.